Matshidze (2013) clarified the meaning of the term ‘Venda’, pointing out that it refers to both the group of people known as Vhavenda and the area they live in. Before settling in northern South Africa in the early 1700s, Mulaudzi (2020) affirmed that the Vhavenda people had migrated from Central Africa, passing through countries including the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Mabiba (1994) noted that while their geographical origin has been a subject of debate for decades, diverse interpretations often point to the Democratic Republic of Congo as the potential source. Matshidze (2013) confirmed the enduring presence of Vhavenda communities in Zimbabwe. Currently, Vhavenda populations reside in both South Africa and Zimbabwe, as depicted by the migration patterns of Tshivenda-speaking people on the accompanying map, Figure 1. Worth noting, this study facilitates cross-border comparisons by interacting with Tshivenda-speaking communities in Zimbabwe and South Africa, providing insights into how IKS adapt to diverse cultural and geographical contexts. Such analysis enhances our comprehension of the adaptability and resilience inherent in these traditions.

The map (Figure 1) depicts the countries through which Tshivenda-speaking people travelled on their route to their current settlement regions, with dotted arrows signifying both their historical migration and the modern geographic areas where their culture thrive. The Venda homeland was given self-governance powers by the apartheid government of South Africa in 1963, when it was proclaimed the ‘Republic of Venda’ (Fokwang 2003). Nevertheless, this self-governance was not acknowledged globally and was commonly interpreted as an attempt to legitimise apartheid practices. Subsequently, Venda was reincorporated into the new South Africa as a part of the Limpopo Province after apartheid ended in 1994 (Mahosi 2020; Pienaar 2014). Sadly, colonisation and apartheid had a severe impact on the Vhavenda people’s indigenous practices, alongside many other indigenous communities (Oliver & Oliver 2017). Their inhabited region was part of the greater European colonial expansion in the 19th century. During the Scramble for Africa, it was first conquered by the British before being administered by the South African Republic (Transvaal). Alemazung (2010) posited that the colonial era brought major changes to the socio-economic landscape, including forced labour, land expropriation and the establishment of colonial rule. These changes adversely affected the transmission, continuity and practice of Tshivenda IKS. Colonialism significantly impacted how native peoples governed themselves and transferred traditional knowledge. As a result, the transmission of Tshivenda indigenous knowledge and practices became challenging. Seroto (2019) argued that colonisers appropriated indigenous artefacts and knowledge, often relocating them to institutions and museums in Europe, resulting in the loss of IKS. Furthermore, according to Sparks (2019), colonialism often resulted in land dispossession, denying indigenous peoples access to their native territories. The disturbance impacted indigenous land management approaches, agricultural systems and ecological knowledge. The exploitation of natural resources for colonial advantage degraded the ecosystem and disrupted indigenous resource management approaches (Alemazung 2010).

In commercialised sectors, indigenous legal systems were either replaced by or coexisted with Western legal systems (Mukuka 2010). This reduced the power of traditional leaders and knowledge holders and had an impact on traditional governance and customary conflict resolution procedures. Colonial policies also promoted the growth of commercial crops and brought in modern yet unsustainable farming methods, disrupting indigenous agricultural knowledge, crop diversity and traditional farming systems (Iya 2017; Mukuka 2010). In recent years, indigenous communities have undertaken a concerted effort to maintain, revitalise and modify their IKS in the post-colonial age, despite these obstacles. Indigenous communities are revisiting traditional practices and finding innovative means to effectively apply IKS in modern-day living (Masenya 2024).

Indigenous Knowledge Systems comprise a range of knowledge, abilities, customs and inventions that have been refined and passed down through the years by indigenous peoples (Khumalo & Mapotse 2023). Deeply ingrained in the spiritual beliefs and lifestyles of indigenous people, these systems have been integrated into a foundation of culture, traditions and local surroundings. Indigenous knowledge provides a comprehensive understanding of the world by addressing a wide range of topics, including astronomy, medicine, ecology, agriculture, storytelling and social organisation (Emeagwali & Sefa-Dei 2014). It incorporates interrelated understandings of human nature, relationships and spirituality. Indigenous knowledge is passed down orally from elders through ceremonies, songs, rituals and storytelling. It is best transmitted throughout generations (Gorjestani 2000). Intergenerational learning is prioritised by indigenous communities. This involves passing down knowledge from elders to younger generations in family and communal settings. This practice encourages continuity, identity and the retention of traditional knowledge (Batibo 2013). Furthermore, indigenous knowledge changes throughout time, adapting and inventing in response to shifting social, environmental and economic conditions (Hari 2020).

The argument over the role of IKS in mainstream economic activities continues in scholarly discourse, notably in terms of the effective integration of IKS practices into business environments, as well as their impact on diversity and inclusion policies (Loew et al. 2019; Vilakazi, Zengeni & Mafongoya 2022). Despite these arguments, IKS provide opportunities for SMEs to address and mitigate the concerns of global warming and climate change caused by unsustainable economic practices (Mugambiwa 2021). Indigenous Knowledge Systems have distinct characteristics that reflect the wisdom and tradition of indigenous communities. Their comprehensive approach not only delivers practical solutions, but it also instils a deep feeling of purpose and meaning, creating a healthy and peaceful lifestyle (Khumalo & Mapotse 2023).

The dynamic and participatory method to conveying IKS preserves the continuity and authenticity of knowledge, as community members actively learn from their elders and peers. Indigenous Knowledge Systems are strongly rooted in local surroundings, providing indigenous people with an in-depth knowledge of ecosystems and natural resources (Emeagwali & Sefa-Dei 2014). This information promotes sustainable resource management based on local demands, making IKS adaptable and dynamic.

Furthermore, the emphasis on community well-being within IKS highlights the importance of adopting IKS principles into SMEs’ social responsibilities (Ndwandwe 2013). By promoting community welfare, SMEs can effectively incorporate IKS principles into their business practices.

Indigenous Knowledge Systems in general, including Tshivenda IKS, play a vital role in various industries, notably health care and agriculture, where traditional practices intersect with modern approaches (Ademowo & Nuhu 2017). A historical example of this synergy is evident in the rise of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe as a significant trade centre in Limpopo. Mapungubwe, an Iron Age kingdom flourishing from the 9th to 13th centuries, held considerable importance in southern Africa (Pwiti 1991). Situated in present-day Limpopo, it served as a bustling hub for trade, connecting with regions as far as the Swahili Coast, India and China.

Mapungubwe thrived as a trade centre, facilitated by the exchange of valuable goods like gold, ivory and ceramics. This trading hub attracted diverse communities, fostering cultural exchange and economic growth (Wintjes & Tiley-Nel 2019). The interaction of traders and locals led to the sharing of knowledge, influencing agricultural practices, metallurgy and art. This dynamic cultural interchange contributed to Mapungubwe’s unique identity and complex societal structure, supported by evidence of hierarchical leadership and craft specialisation (Woods 2012). However, environmental changes, trade route shifts and political shifts led to Mapungubwe’s decline by the 13th century (Wintjes & Tiley-Nel 2019). Nevertheless, its historical commercial activities were significantly influenced by Tshivenda IKS, highlighting the crucial role of IKS in commercial settings.

The recognition of indigenous medicine as a crucial part of basic health care began in 1978 when the World Health Assembly (WHA) encouraged countries to integrate indigenous medical practices into their health care systems (WHA 2003). Subsequently, Antwi-Baffour et al. (2014) contended that the high cost of Western pharmaceutical products limits their accessibility for many Africans. As a result, the majority of the African population still relies on indigenous medicine for their health care needs (Rankoana 2012).

Sustainability in SMEs encompasses environmental, social and economic aspects (Long 2019), yet these businesses face numerous challenges in achieving sustainability. Limited resources, financial constraints and a lack of awareness hinder the adoption of sustainable practices (Raderbauer 2011). In South Africa, SMEs are classified according to the National Small Business Act, which sets criteria based on employee count among other criteria. Micro-enterprises have fewer than 10 employees, small enterprises employ between 10 to 50 individuals, and medium-sized enterprises have 51 to 250 workers (Department of Small Business Development 2023). Within the SME landscape, perspectives on sustainability vary widely, and this diversity in perception is influenced by factors such as industry context, market demands and regulatory requirements (Long 2019).

While some businesses view sustainability as essential for responsible operations and a means of differentiation in the market, others perceive it as an additional financial burden and administrative hurdle (Porter & Kramer 2011). Despite concerted efforts by the South African government to foster the development of small businesses through policy frameworks, many SMEs struggle to maintain sustainability. Policymakers continue to prioritise small businesses as a driving force for local economic development (Department of Small Business Development 2023), yet challenges persist in translating these intentions into tangible outcomes. In fact, the failure rate among SMEs remains alarmingly high, with approximately 70% to 80% ceasing operations within the first 5 years (Adonis 2022). However, overcoming sustainability hurdles can yield significant benefits for SMEs, including enhanced brand image, attracting environmentally conscious consumers and long-term cost savings through energy efficiency. Subsequently, strategic planning can be a useful tool for fostering sustainability in SMEs (Gast, Gundolf & Cesinger 2017).

Although SMEs rarely engage in strategic planning, establishing a formalised business strategy is increasingly recognised as crucial for long-term success. Strategic planning significantly influences sustainable business practices in SMEs (Wang, Walker & Redmond 2009). A well-defined strategic plan aligns sustainability goals with overall business objectives, integrating sustainability into daily operations. This approach enables SMEs to identify areas for improvement, allocate resources effectively and implement measures for long-term sustainability (Long, Looijen & Blok 2018). Moreover, strategic planning empowers SMEs to anticipate and adapt to market trends, regulatory changes and consumer expectations, fostering adaptability and long-term success. Developing clear goals, regularly assessing risks and opportunities, and investing in innovation are crucial for SMEs’ survival and growth in an evolving market landscape (Wang et al. 2009).

Embracing sustainability can enhance market appeal, attract environmentally conscious consumers, and create a competitive edge. Furthermore, integrating sustainable practices can lead to cost savings through improved resource efficiency and energy conservation (Long et al. 2018). Accessing financial support and incentives from government initiatives promoting sustainability represents another opportunity for SMEs to integrate sustainability into their operations. It is imperative for strategic plans to have a specific focus on sustainability, ensuring a balanced strategic approach across the three sustainability pillars: social, economic and environmental (Porter & Kramer 2011). Small and medium-sized enterprises that embrace sustainability tend to demonstrate better resource efficiency, innovation and resilience.

Unfortunately, SMEs face many challenges in implementing sustainability efforts (Mene 2020). These include limited access to financial resources, insufficient awareness and understanding of sustainable practices, regulatory burdens, lack of technical expertise, and difficulties in measuring and reporting sustainability performance (Mene 2020). Overcoming these hurdles is crucial to leverage opportunities associated with sustainability (Long 2019), including meeting the growing demand for eco-friendly products and services. Subsequently, SMEs are urged to prioritise resource efficiency and environmental stewardship by implementing sustainable practices like energy and water conservation, waste reduction and recycling (Wang et al. 2009). These efforts not only minimise environmental impact but also lead to long-term financial benefits. Embracing renewable energy sources and eco-friendly materials can further enhance sustainability while driving innovation and competitive advantage. Additionally, fostering a culture of social responsibility and ethical conduct enhances trust and goodwill with employees, customers and stakeholders, bolstering long-term viability (Raderbauer 2011). Furthermore, cultivating partnerships and collaboration strengthens sustainability efforts, benefiting SMEs, suppliers, local communities and customers (Porter & Kramer 2011).

The study employed theoretical sampling, focusing not only on gathering more participants but also on saturating concepts to build theory. The study involved a total of 12 voluntary participants, 7 participants from Musina (Limpopo) and 5 from Beitbridge (Zimbabwe), who met specific selection criteria including that SME owned by a Tshivenda-speaking individual, operating in agriculture or health care industries for a minimum of 3 years and registered with relevant authorities. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with these SME owners in both regions.

The study utilised a semi-structured interview schedule to allow participants to freely express their views and share knowledge (Adhabi & Anozie 2017) regarding challenges and opportunities in implementing Tshivenda IKS within their organisations. Interviews were audio recorded with participants’ written consent. Interview durations varied based on participants’ knowledge and willingness to share, averaging around 40 min to 50 min. Table 1 presents the participant demographics.

The grounded theory data analysis method, encompassing open, axial and selective coding, was conducted using Atlas.ti. In their analysis, Draucker et al. (2007) emphasised the close relationship between coding and theoretical sampling, the preferred sampling method in grounded theory research. Figure 2 provides steps applied during data analysis.

The researcher meticulously transcribed each interview verbatim, ensuring completeness and correctness, and eliminating errors. In the initial coding stage, common phrases from participant responses were identified by thoroughly reviewing interview transcripts. These quality-assured transcripts were then analysed using Atlas.ti, starting with open coding to identify themes from interview questions and participant responses. Themes were organised based on similarities and common phrases. Ultimately, opportunities and challenges were categorised, aligning with the study’s research aim and objective.

The study obtained ethical clearance from the University of Johannesburg, identified by ethics clearance number 2018BM40. The four criteria of trustworthiness, as outlined by Lincoln and Guba (1985), were considered in developing the design: credibility through exploratory research with knowledgeable participants, dependability with a clearly described research process, confirmability with design components underpinned by supporting secondary research, and transferability, ensuring the design is reliable as a starting point for future research.

This theme primarily addresses the challenges encountered by SMEs in utilising Tshivenda IKS to enhance business sustainability. Identified challenges include lack of sustainability and strategic planning within SMEs, shifts within the business environment, shortage of sustainable supply chains, diversity and cultural differences.

Sustainability and SME strategic planning

Overall, most participants disclosed a lack of formally written business strategy documents outlining strategic plans for their businesses. While two participants mentioned having an informal strategy framework for future plans, and that it had not been formally documented or communicated to employees. Additionally, these SMEs indicated that their strategic plans lacked a specific focus on sustainability, but instead emphasised future product and market expansion, predominantly prioritising economic sustainability over social and environmental pillars. Furthermore, only two out of the 12 participants had formalised their strategic plans, primarily motivated by the need to secure funding. The remaining eight participants, lacking both draft and formalised strategic plans, showed less inclination towards formalising a business strategy for sustainability, citing business size as a limiting factor (see Table 2).

While the responsibility of communicating the business strategy and aligning employees with its vision and missions sorely rests with the leader, in this context, the SME owners, the study identified a lack of commitment from leadership towards sustainability planning. Consistent with earlier research (Jansson et al. 2017), informal strategic planning was found to be prevalent among SMEs, placing them at a disadvantage regarding sustainable business practices. Because of inadequate planning, IKS practices requiring longer turnaround times were disregarded in favour of quicker and more accessible alternatives. Ultimately, sustainable business practices informed by IKS within the SMEs were not driven from a strategic point.

Shifts in the business environmental factors

Participant perspectives underline the significant influence of environmental factors in implementing Tshivenda IKS to advance sustainability. The findings indicate that changes in external environmental variables have presented both opportunities and threats to sustainability practices through Tshivenda IKS. While technology was commended for its ability to facilitate mass production, it was also criticised for undermining IKS practices and contributing to health concerns through the production of genetically modified products. Additionally, participants noted a rapid loss of land and natural resources crucial for practising IKS because of globalisation, urbanisation, as well as policies and regulations that do not favour the preservation and protection of IKS. Moreover, climate change was observed to have reshaped traditional IKS knowledge regarding weather conditions, seasonal forecasts and overall ecosystem comprehension (see Table 3).

Health care participants expressed concerns about climate change leading to significant alterations in the ecosystem, rendering some IKS teachings obsolete and impractical. Participants attributed this to the ongoing depletion of natural resources and notable changes in plant genetic properties, compromising plants’ healing abilities or rendering them unsafe for human consumption. Biodiversity loss has led to the encroachment on sacred sites and the disappearance of unique indigenous plants such as ‘Muangaila’, which held cultural and medicinal significance. ‘Muangaila’ was revered for its exclusivity, territorial growth and sacredness, with only trained individuals permitted to handle it. Health care practitioners demonstrated a protective stance towards IKS, especially concerning sacred and unique aspects of their practice as the business existence and operations largely rely on indigenous herbs.

Short of sustainable supply chain

The findings highlight significant concerns raised by participants regarding the crucial role of suppliers in promoting sustainable business practices. Participants highlighted challenges in securing reliable suppliers for Tshivenda IKS-related resources like indigenous manure and herbs, which are essential resources for sustainable operations. Without access to these IKS-produced suppliers, participants felt compelled to resort to chemically infiltrated Western alternatives because of their availability. In addition, sustainable business practices, characterised by resource optimisation, were hindered by the adoption of unsustainable resources resulting from SMEs’ poor planning. Bugwandin and Bayat (2022) reported that poor planning directly impacts resource management and supplier selection decisions. Despite this, Tshivenda IKS practices were preferred when they did not disrupt operational activities and service delivery. Consequently, the findings show how SMEs opted to adopt an integrated approach, combining Western science practices for convenience with intertwined IKS practices. Notably, health care SMEs faced challenges in integrating Western science and Tshivenda IKS because of their reliance on selling pure, organic herbs. In such cases, packaging and measuring tools from Western science were predominantly utilised to ensure product safety and provide clear dosage instructions.

Participants emphasised that securing stable suppliers of indigenous resources for sustainability efforts could lead to reduced production costs compared to current conventional methods. This contrasts with existing literature (Uhunamure et al. 2021) attributing higher production costs of indigenous and organic resources to factors like climate change, manual harvesting and supplier scarcity. Nevertheless, integrating sustainable supply chain activities with sustainable procurement supports sustainable business practices (Xu 2022). Given these challenges, SMEs should collaborate with suppliers to develop innovative solutions promoting sustainability (see Table 4).

Diversity and cultural differences

Employee behaviour, inefficiencies in operational planning, and general and established business norms emerged as key drivers of organisational culture and reception of Tshivenda IKS practices. The findings illustrate how proverbs and idioms form the basis for expectations regarding employee interactions with each other, suppliers, customers and other stakeholders. Participants emphasised the importance of traits such as compassion, respect, nobility and ethics, which are deeply rooted in the upbringing and teachings within the Tshivenda community, as essential for interactions. However, stakeholder diversity, encompassing differences in ethnicity, race, tribe and religion, presents a challenge because of varying principles ingrained in different communities. Additionally, participants also face criticism of their IKS. For instance, within Tshivenda IKS, avoiding direct eye contact during interactions with seniors, age or position is seen as disrespectful, contrasting with other cultural norms where direct eye contact is a sign of confidence and respect. The inability to navigate these differing value systems was found to negatively impact business engagements (see Table 5).

The findings reveal a significant negative impact on IKS practices because of changes in religious beliefs, leading to a perception of IKS as culturally and religiously unfavourable. Christian consumers viewed IKS practices as ‘unholy’ and avoided their adoption and consumption (Ntombana 2015). This religious stigma resulted in SMEs being unable to cater to this customer segment. Abandoning IKS was common among consumers adopting religions that stigmatise its use, labelling IKS practices as ‘witchcraft’ and associating them with negative spiritual connotations. Despite these challenges, findings indicate that participants utilised Tshivenda IKS principles to shape interpersonal relationships with stakeholders.

Within this theme, opportunities emerged including greater stakeholder collaborations and engagements, access to local and international markets, and enhanced business attraction through the preservation of IKS.

Greater collaborations and stakeholder engagements

Viewed through the perspective of Tshivenda IKS, participants saw other businesses not as competitors but as collaborative partners in shaping and co-creating value within the chain. As such, common marketing practices such as criticising competitors’ products or services to gain market share were cautioned against because of the belief in ‘udi o kela masimbe’, translating to ‘bringing curses to oneself’. Consequently, a strong spirit of collaboration was noted among SMEs and their competitors. In addition, SMEs were found to collaborate and leverage royal households for marketing purposes and strengthening customer confidence. The practice of ‘usuma musanda’ or ‘u luvha musanda’ was found crucial for business sustainability, as SMEs could face community disapproval for failing to follow indigenous protocol (see Table 6).

The findings reveal the concept of ‘cooperative competition’ or ‘co-opetition’ among competitors, which fosters benefits such as pooling resources, expanding networks, and sharing knowledge and skills (Luciana, Pierre & Yan 2021). Co-opetition facilitates market expansion through joint efforts (Riihikoski & Chuecas 2020), but considerations like trust, alignment of goals and legal compliance with regulations such as the Competition Act 89 of 1998 are crucial to prevent anticompetitive behaviour. Competition is viewed as essential for SMEs to enhance their competitiveness against larger enterprises. The study found that traditional leadership structures, involving approval processes by royal councils, play a significant authoritative role in community recognition of businesses. This was more prevalent in SMEs operating in South Africa compared to those operating in Zimbabwe. South African SMEs adhering to indigenous protocol received community acknowledgement and benefits, while those disregarding it experience reduced community recognition, regardless of official business registration status.

Access to local and international markets

Participants recognised IKS as a catalyst for SMEs to penetrate both local and international markets. They noted the particularly high demand for organic goods in regions like Europe. Remarkably, participants perceived this demand as confirmation of the relevance of IKS practices, highlighting the opportunities for economic development through IKS-produced goods (see Table 7).

Earlier studies (Guanqi & Husnain 2022; Wang, Pham & Dang 2020) also reported a rise in environmental consciousness among consumers, noting a growing preference for products and services aligning with sustainable principles. Health-conscious consumers prefer products that are without genetically modified organisms (GMOs), pesticides and synthetic chemicals, believing them to be healthier for overall well-being. The demand for organic products exceeds local markets, with increasing interest observed in international markets. This demand presents opportunities for SMEs to access larger markets and export their products (Guanqi & Husnain 2022).

Enhance business attraction through IKS preservation

To create a competitive advantage, SMEs aimed for differentiation, partnerships and superior customer service by embracing IKS and Ubuntu principles. These principles guided various aspects including debt repayment and product exchanges, placing the customer at the forefront, embodying the ethos of ‘murengi ndi mapfura ua doliwa’ (‘the customer is king’) (see Table 8).

The study found that SMEs integrated the aspects of IKS into their business operations, particularly in marketing through branding and differentiation. Tshivenda cultural practices like the greeting ‘Ndaa’ and traditional attire ‘Minwenda’ were used for brand differentiation purposes, effectively distinguishing their business and influencing public perception. In addition, previous studies (Grobler & Singh 2018; Laloo 2022) have linked principles like empathy, respect and cooperation promoted by Ubuntu to Tshivenda IKS, reinforcing its prevalence in the Vhavenda community. In SME customer service, Ubuntu’s emphasis on recognising others’ humanity positively impacts relationship-building, fostering loyalty and enhancing the overall customer experience and competitive advantage.